Emmanuel Kants Ethics Essay -- essays research papers

As we discussed in class on Monday night, Kant’s main argument in the first section was dedicated to developing his belief that a rational beings have the capacity to reason and through this reason comes a beings ability to know what is right or wrong. Also, Kant revealed that a beings also have an inherent desire to keep themselves save physically and strive for happiness. Yet, these desires or needs can be fulfilled with pure instinct and that reason does not need to be used in order to reach those goals. More specifically Kant says, â€Å"The highest purposes of each individual are presumably self-preservation and the attainment of happiness.† â€Å"The fact that reason serves purposes that are higher than individual survival and private happiness.† This tells us the reason for Kant explaining t...

Essay on Dignity of the African People in Chinua Achebes Things Fall A

Dignity of the African People Conveyed in Things Fall Apart In Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart, it is shown that the African people had their own complex culture before the Europeans decided to "pacify" them. The idea that the dignity of these people has been greatly compromised is acknowledged in the essay "The Role of the Writer," which is explanatory of Achebe's novels. A writer trying to capture the truth of a situation that his readers may know little or nothing about needs a sense of history in order to appropriately address the topic. It is not enough "to beat" another writer to the issue. Writers should make the attempt to express a deeper understanding. Without proper mental investment in a written work, the product will be a shallow representation of what it is meant to convey. Achebe chose to write his novel realistically. He includes the beauty of the Ibo's culture, as well as the gruesome. He recorded that a man might help kill his own adopted son for fear that he would be "thought weak." He also revealed that newborn twins were thrown away. Along with the "great depth" comes tragedy, but all of the details were required to make an accurate presentation of the subject. The writer must understand that the truth is not selective to the pleasant facts. The District Commissioner believed that it was important that he "be firm in cutting out the details" and decreed that a paragraph would suffice for the explanation of Okonkwo. However, Achebe, in essence, wrote an entire novel about this character. It is arrogant to believe that the complete understanding of a human being can be accomplished so easily. The character of the District Commissioner is a prime example of a biased ... ...priciously without consideration to the public's attention to written news. Care must be taken and time set aside to allow for every needed aspect of a literary work to develop. Writing for expediency often excludes the "value and beauty" in the culture of the Africans. Fallacious arguments and insincere statements result from hastening a document. Writers have the opportunity to "tell the people" the harsh realities of the past. Each one who writes about the colonial period has the choice to just write something or to write something substantial. The goal of a writer should be to influence the world for the better. With a proper attitude towards the material, knowledge of the history, and care taken for the preparation, the dignity and self-respect lost to the African people can be regained, and many can know "where the rain began to beat them."

Depth of a River :: essays research papers

Depth of a River   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Poetic expression is evolved from a web of emotions and thoughts. With the help of imagery, formation, and figurative language, a poet is able to transport readers to another world of his creation. Robert Burns uses these attributes to invite readers into world of peace and serenity in his poem â€Å"Sweet Afton.† This lyrical poem expresses the gratitude the persona feels for his homeland’s beauty, while asking nature to be quiet so his love may enjoy the tranquillity of her sleep. Burns’s use of imagery, use of figurative language, and construction with musical aspects help him convey his feelings and ideas to his readers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With the rolling hills, winding streams, and wandering sheep, Burns has created a pastoral setting in â€Å"Sweet Afton.† Burns use of imagery helps add to the reality of the poem. A reader is able to hear the blackbirds’ whistling, the dove’s resounding echo, and the lapwing’s screaming. A reader is able to see snowy feet, crystal streams, and green valleys. A reader can even smell the sweet-scented birch. Burns appeals to senses by using imagery words that create the illusion of sound, sight, and smell. Imagery helps express the persona’s feelings in his environment, enabling the reader to stand along with him in his world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Slow-moving rivers symbolize the simple life. Peace is traveling at a pace easily kept. There are no dangerous undercurrents or rocky obstacles; Afton River is gliding crystal. Burns is able to create this illusion through figurative language. He also uses apostrophe by having the persona command the river and wildlife to be quiet, as in â€Å"Flow gently, sweet Afton, disturb not her dream,† (lines 4 and 24). Much like imagery, figurative language is another vehicle used to carry the feelings of the persona to the reader.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Sweet Afton† is a poem broken up into six stanzas. Each stanza contains four lines. These stanzas attribute to the musical effect of the poem. The first and last stanzas are incremental refrains. Burns uses this repetition to emphasize his plea for the river to flow gently and his great appreciation for its beauty. The middle four stanzas each focus on a different feature of nature. The second stanza focuses on the sounds of the birds in the narrow and secluded valleys. The beauty of the surrounding hills, little streams, and the persona’s own sheep are emphasized in the third stanza.

Case Study – Inner City Paint

University of the District of columbia| Strategic Audit Plan/ Case Analysis| Case 28 – Inner-City Paint Corporation| | [Type the author name]| 3/21/2013| Business Policy TR 5:30pm – 6:50pm Spring 2013 | I. Current Situation A. Current Performance 1. Poor financials 2. High account receivables 3. Very disorganized system of business 4. Lack of Customer Confidence B. Strategic Posture 1. Mission: To produce a paint that was less expensive and of higher quality than what has been used commercial buildings, etc. 2.Reputation: Built on fast service; frequently supplies paint to contractors within 24 hours. 3. Primary Market: small to medium sized decorating companies 4. Policies: Walsh handles all mail, payments, and billings II. Strategic Managers A. Top Management * Consists of Stanley Walsh who handles all mailing/billing, payments, etc. * Office is managed by Mary Walsh (Walsh’s mother) with help of two part –time clerks * Plant Manager is an acquaintance o f Walsh’s who only has experience as a painter III. External Environment (EFAS) A.Societal Environment 1. Economic a. The slowdown in the housing market combined with a slowdown in the overall economy caused financial difficulty for Inner-City Paint Corporation (T) b. Now required to pay cash on delivery (C. O. D. ) for its raw materials (T) 2. Technological: Computers and Information Technology offers opportunity to better organize the business (O) B. Task Environment 1. Rivalry High: Larger orders usually go to larger companies due to lack of customer trust. (T) 2. Competitive Prices (O) 3. Threats of Substitutes High (T) IV.Internal Environment (IFRAS) A. Corporate Structure 1. Thirty-five employees (20 part-time); most unskilled workers who lack training (W) 2. Lack of Delegation: lacks employee empowerment and too much of workload is carried by the business CEO/President, Mr. Walsh (W) B. Corporate Culture 1. Rumors abound that the company is in difficult financial strai ts, that it is unable to pay suppliers, and it owes a considerable sum for payment on back taxes (W) C. Corporate Resources 1. Marketing: Lacks a professional salesman other than the owner (W) 2. Finance . Current Ratio of . 92 indicates that the company has an issue paying its short-term liabilities b. Return on Assets of 5. 98% indicates that the company is asset-heavy 3. Facilities: Cheap Rent (S) 4. Inventory: Lack of a Consistent and Reliable Inventory System; owner mental keeps track of inventory (W) 5. Human Resources: The Plant Manager lacks experience or training as a manager. (W) 6. Information Systems: No computer system used for business, very disorganized as a result (W) V. Analysis of Strategic Factors (SWOT Analysis) A. Strengths . Competitive Prices b. Family Business with origin in community c. Fast Delivery for Small Orders B. Weaknesses a. No Financial and Inventory Controls b. Lack of Business Network/Computer c. No Inventory System C. Opportunities a. Hiring pro fessional salesmen to ensure consistent growth and consultants to identify problems and provide solutions b. Attract more market share by raising customer perception of reliability D. Threats a. No Audit of Corporation b. Large Orders usually go to larger companies VI. Strategic Alternatives and Recommended StrategyA. Strategic Alternatives 1. Management Improvement a. Mr. Walsh needs to learn employee empowerment and delegation. He lacks trust in his employees and therefore takes on too much of the business’ customer affairs. b. The plant manager needs to be trained in management due to his lack of experience. c. Public Relations specialist and marketing specialist needed to better handle business and consultations. 2. Facility Improvement: More equipment may be needed to ensure consumers that they won’t have to worry about orders not being ready or too large to handle.B. Recommended Strategy 1. Salary Cuts for All or Cutback of Employees: The President’s six f igure salary is too much for such a small business. 2. Find and Research new suppliers: The high Cost of Goods Sold is greatly reducing profits. 3. Greatly Improve management skills and create policies 4. Hire Salesmen to increase business market share 5. Collect Bad Debt from Clients; Take less credit accounts and more cash accounts because Account Receivables is too high. 6. Create an effective Inventory System that better tracks Inventory on hand.

The Tourism Product- Components of the Tourism Industry

Introduction to Tourism BEM1012 James Ince 620021716 number one tutorial question- Describe how the components of the tourism industry interact together in order to provide tourists with their holiday experience. Please state whether you agree, or disagree with the view of some academics that there is no such thing as the ‘Tourism Product’. In the industry of tourism, there are a number of components that link together, to provide a family, couple or a group with a vacation. These components are more like steps. These steps include, how you get to your destination, where you stay, what activities you do and who organizes all of these things.The formal names for these components are: accommodation sector, attraction sector, transport sector, travel organisers sector, destination sector. They all play a vital role in any vacation. The accommodation sector deals with where they are going to stay, for example, hotel, hostel and bed and breakfast. The attraction sector involv es what activities the guest will do, while vacating. For example, Amusement parks, museums, beaches. The transport sector deals with how the tourist will get to their destination. Whether it is bus, train, plane or cruise ship.The travel organizers are the people that market and sell you the trips. For example, travel agents, tour guides, cruise lines. Destination sector is where the government assist a business. For example, Government may guarantee revenue, tax incentives to build hotels or attractions. All of these segments need to be balanced and coordinated properly to complete a successful industry. If anyone of these steps is not completed to a certain standard, it could impact on the overall industry. In the industry, there is something called the tourism product.This is what a destination collectively does, that either influences the tourist in a positive or negative way. At the end of the trip, it is the tourist perception of the destination, which is the tourism product. It is all the physical and non-physical components grouped together. For example, some of the physical components would be transportation and attractions. The non-physical components would be things like the weather and safety. The tourism product is providing the whole experience to the costumer, giving them the non-bias opinions for their vacation.Some academics have said that they don’t believe there is such thing as a tourism product. I disagree with this statement, because I believe you could have a successful business that provides all of these things to the costumer. My idea of the tourism product is having all of the components and steps needed to make the perfect vacation, added into one big step. This would save the customer, a lot of effort researching on their destination, which they know nothing about. They would get the insights, and secrets on their destination. Without all of the bias and marketing strategies.This business would be successful and reliable bec ause, it is not their product to sell, they are just putting it together for the costumer. The business would have to put the whole trip together for the costumer. To achieve this the business would have to get an insight on what the costumer’s interests were, to therefore plan activities that they would enjoy. To complete this process, they would have to put together all of the components together. Starting with the accommodation sector. A good example of a tourism product is, in my country Barbados, there are many different kinds of vacations you could have.If you are of the wealthy class in England, you can come to Barbados and stay in a five star resort. You can take the expensive chartered yachts out for the day as attractions. There are BBW’s you can rent to drive around for you transportation, this way; you can have all the things you have at home. If this life style does not suit you and you are more of a middle class citizen in England. You could buy a cheap a irplane ticket, from a travel agent on your street. Arrive on virgin or British airways. Stay in a three star hotel, rent a small car. Choose attractions that suit you, going to the beach, spending days in rum shops.Both of these examples give a brief explanation about what the tourism product is. The first component that the tourist must deal with while planning their vacation is, accommodation sector. This sector deals with where the tourists stay when they are vacating. This sector really depends on who is it is staying, whether it is a family, young couple, honeymooners or elderly. It depends on this because; they will want to be close to attractions that they enjoy. For example, young people will want to be close to the club street, while elderly would like to be close to museums or spas.This links to other components because, for transportation. They would like to fly in near to their hotel; therefore they wouldn’t have to pay so much to get from the airport to their ho tel. This reasoning also applies to the attraction sector also, because the tourist vacating, would prefer to be close to the attractions, that they have chosen to participate in. This sector is vital in planning for a vacation, because it determines where you are going to stay. The two factors that help people decide where they are going to stay are price and quality.These two factors usually come hand in hand. Although if you do enough research and enough asking around. You will find a cheap place to stay, with standard quality. The main challenges that occur when dealing with these components are: safety, quality, how central it is, fake marketing and how busy it will be. The second component that is dealt with when planning a vacation is the transportation sector. This sector deals with how the tourist will get from their home to their destination. When tourist plans this stage, they look for the cheapest, safest and best quality flight.This links to the previous component becau se, when you are traveling you want to get near to where you are staying. Therefore you wont have to travel far to get to your accommodation, and save money on extra traveling expenses. This component also depends on what kind of group is going on this vacation. If you have young ones that you are traveling with you won’t book first class because they would probably be too loud. It also depends on how wealthy you are. For example if you can’t afford first class, it is unnecessary to book it because it is a luxury need, not a necessity.The third component of the tourism industry is the attraction sector. This sector deals with what the tourist will do while on vacation. To plan this, you must first look at who is traveling. For example, if it is a young group of friends, then attractions that suit them are nightclubs or amusement parks. If elderly are traveling, then museums or restaurants will attract them. This links to transport because; you need a way to get there. If it is nearby, then taxi will be adequate, but if the journey is far, then a train or bus may be necessary.It also links to the component accommodation because of the same reason; you want to search for attractions near to your hotel. You want to do this because; you don’t have to pay that extra for distance transportation. The fourth component is the travel organizer. This sector is about who markets, sells and organizes your trip. This is the sector that is advertised in the television and radio; these people put together your trip, and try to make it as cost affected as they can. Examples of travel organizers would be cruise lines. Cruise lines are all in one package deals, you pay for everything upfront, and the whole trip is planned for you.This is a sensible trip, because you know how much you are spending upfront. The fifth and last component is the destination sector. This sector deals with government assisting and helping the tourism industry. The government does t his, because they want to economy to be competitive, and each industry to strive. Examples of government assisting the industry would be, government pay for infrastructure, incentives to build hotels or other attractions, training course for staff and allowing a business to do something, in order to attract people.This component links to the others, because some businesses cannot afford to do all of these things without help from government. To conclude, each of these components assist each other, in order for people to have a balanced trip. These components include, accommodations, attractions, transportation, travel organizers and destination sector. Each of these is needed for a tourist to have an enjoyable trip. If one of these components is not completed, the whole trip could be impacted majorly, there needs to be a balance among all of the steps.In the industry there is something called the tourism product, this product is the perception of the destination, from the touristâ⠂¬â„¢s point of view. Whether the perception is negative or positive. It is how all of the components have come together, and how well they complemented, and worked with each other. Many academics think that there is no such thing as a tourism product; I disagree with this opinion, because I believe you can have a successful business, which provides all of these components to a customer.

Is Corruption-Free Society: A Distant Dream?

Once chanakya had said that honey would be kept on your tongue and you would not be allowed to taste; it is impossible. Corruption is the misuse of public power for private profit. It involves those behaviours on the part of government officials, whether politicians or civil servants, where they improperly and unlawfully enrich themselves or those close to them, by the misuse of the public power entrusted to them. Corruption in any where is threat to every here as the saying one rotten apple spoils the barrel. Harshad Mehta, Sukhram, Tehelaka, Telgi cases are the great example of corruption in India.Literacy and corruption are interlinked. Most literates are more corrupted in most of the cases and the most illiterate are the victims of corruption. As in India most of the people are illiterate so they are becoming the easy victims of corruption. Every patriotic Indian realizes that if there is one factor that is keeping India under the spell of perpetual poverty and which makes the li fe of the common citizen miserable, it is corruption. A citizen faces corruption practically at every level and every sector of life.It could be the local rationing department, police, municipal authorities or educational institutions like schools and colleges. In the industry inspector-raj has become a code word for regular bribes collected by the public servants at the cutting edge of administration of the various departments of Central and State governments. Corruption is anti-national, anti-economic development and anti-poor. Nevertheless we have perhaps come to take corruption as a fact and a way of life. This may be partly due to sociological reasons and partly due to a sense of helplessness and defeatism.Corruption is harmful in three different ways: Rajiv Gandhi once observed that out of every rupee meant for the anti- poverty programmes, only 15 paise reached the beneficiary. Out of the 85 paise may be 40 paise can be accounted for as administrative overheads. The leakage o f the remaining 45 paise is definitely due to corruption. Corruption is, therefore, anti-poor. Corruption is also anti-economic development. Political interference, reduced attractiveness of service and declining morale has all combined to whittle away officials’ will to remain honest. The biggest cost is political.Petty corruption is especially endemic at the lower, clerical levels of administration — precisely the point at which the ordinary citizen comes into daily contact with officialdom. People are forced to pay bribes for securing virtually any service connected with the government, even that which is theirs by right and law. People naturally tend to judge the entire structure of government on the basis of direct experiences with the agents of government. It would be difficult to exaggerate the revulsion felt by ordinary Indians toward the ubiquitous and institutionalized venality of public life. Evil social practices also promote corruption.One major social cau se that promotes corruption is the dowry system. Every public servant wants to see that his daughter is married off well and there’s continuous pressure for having a substantial level of dowry. This may be one of the reasons why one comes across cases where even public servants who have otherwise led a clean life become vulnerable to corruption towards the end of their career. Dowry system is definitely one of the social roots of corruption in our country. Equally important is the social pressure in a competitive society for ensuring that children get the best possible education.Right from kindergarten in every educational institution, there is pressure of competition, and education has become commercialised. This has been further accentuated by government policies about affirmative action resulting in a great incentive for self-financing colleges who charge a lot of donation fee and most of it is collected in black. Education pressure and corruption in the education sector i s another social factor contributing to corruption in our system. One of the social roots of corruption in India can be traced to our Indian culture of tolerance. Equally important is another psychological factor.Power is never demonstrated in a society unless it is misused. In certain communities, being as corrupt as possible and amassing as much wealth as possible is seen as a macho demonstration of â€Å"competence†. If this is the attitude, those sectors of society that did not have an opportunity to share the power cake in the past may also rationalize that they must emulate those who had earlier enjoyed misuse of their power and amassed wealth by rampant corruption. Thus, a vicious cycle of corruption is launched where a society tolerates amassing of wealth and does not question how that wealth is accumulated.Is eliminating corruption a myth or reality? If we believe corruption can be eliminated, it can be; if not, it will remain a reality. So is it a distant dream or c an this dream be fulfilled is a billion dollar question. In conclusion, corruption in India exists because of the unsatisfied basic needs of the general population. Corruption in India cannot be eradicated by questioning ethical standards of its population. Removal of corruption can only be achieved by right macro-economic policies and by reducing government control. Honest political leadership is a must as a first step.Opening the economy for the investors around the world can provide the needed capital. Fresh ideas and entrepreneurial spirit has to replace the bureaucratic government control for a wealthier society. Supply of basic commodities has to be higher than the demand for general population not to bribe any government officials. Only skilled entrepreneurs hired by public shareholders can bring the money losing monster public sector to profitability. An efficient tax collection mechanism supported by computerised revenue reporting systems of individual businesses would be a step in the right direction.Qualified political leadership is required to understand and implement such policies. Most importantly, political will of the leaders will be required to take such actions. In Japan and South Korea, former prime ministers and children of presidents have been jailed for corruption. In India, not one senior politician of the many who have been implicated in scandals – and they are numerous – has so far been convicted. The labyrinthine legal system is used to frustrate the course of justice. Three-points can be suggested to check corruption. The first is simplification of rules and procedures.Corruption is like malaria, handled by giving medicine to those affected and simultaneously preventing the breeding of mosquitoes. Many of our rules and procedures breed corruption. Orders have, therefore, to be issued to check and simplify procedures. One example is a ban on post-tender negotiations in government purchases, except with the lowest bidder. Such negotiations are a flexible source of corruption. The second step is empowering the public and bringing in greater transparency. Every office should have a board stating, ‘Don’t pay bribes.If anybody asks for a bribe, you can complain to the CVO, CVC. ’ This way we can educate the public who come to every small office of the GOI and other organisations like banks and public sector undertakings that there is a way out if they do not want to pay bribes. The third step is strong punishment to those who are involves in corruption. Corruption is the greatest hindrance in the development of ever-developing nation. If we want to replace the â€Å"developing† tag from our beloved country by â€Å"developed†, we have to take stringent measures and stand against the parasite of corruption together

Reading and Students with Mental Retardation

Reading proficiency is considered a top priority in education, and a skill with myriad implications for learning and achievement in other areas. Yet in the past, literacy rarely has been emphasized for students with mental retardation. With interventions that recognize the importance of literacy for all students, students with mental retardation can build reading skills that can lead to new interests, increased competencies, and greater independence. Understanding the characteristics of students with mental retardation is an important step toward the development of effective instruction and appropriate assessment. This paper is intended to begin a discussion of the issues surrounding reading and students with mental retardation; it is not intended to be a comprehensive research review. The paper provides: (1) an overview of the characteristics of students with mental retardation, (2) a description of common approaches to reading instruction, and (3) assessment approaches and issues that surround the assessment of reading for students with mental retardation. The paper is one of several brief papers developed to contribute to the process of conducting research and developing accessible reading assessments for students with disabilities. Creating accessible reading assessments based on accepted definitions of reading and proficiencies of reading requires knowledge of the issues specific to each disability and how they affect reading and the assessment of reading. The information in these papers was obtained through a broad review of literature and Web sites of national agencies and organizations, along with input and feedback from professionals in the disability areas. Each paper is intended as a first step to facilitate discussions that include individuals who do not know the disability, in this case mental retardation, and those who may know the disability but have not considered the interaction of the disability with reading or the assessment of reading through statewide testing. Students with Mental Retardation More than 600,000 students 6-21 years of age in the United States received special education services for mental retardation during the 2000-2001 school year, comprising about 11% of all students with disabilities in U. S. schools (U. S. Department of Education, 2002). The causes of mental retardation in children vary widely, including fetal alcohol syndrome, genetic disorders like Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome, environmental factors like lead poisoning, or diseases such as meningitis. The American Association on Mental Retardation (2002) defines mental retardation as a â€Å"disability characterized by significant limitations bo th in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. For many years students with mental retardation were identified solely using intelligence testing. IQ levels among students labeled as mentally retarded can vary from 20-25 (profound mental retardation) to 50-75 (mild mental retardation); according to the DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), 85 percent of individuals with mental retardation have mild mental retardation. It has been estimated that 28,056 K-12 English language learners (ELLs) received special education services for mental retardation in 2001-2002. Thus, approximately 7. % of school-age ELLs with disabilities were identified with mental retardation (Zehler, Fleischman, Hopstock, Pendzick, & Stephenson, 2003). The challenge of learning English and having a disability adds another level of complexity to learning to read and demonstrate reading achievement (Mueller & Markowitz, 2004). Similar to other special education categories, but perhaps more unexpectedly, the criteria for students to be eligible for th e mental retardation label varies from state to state (Beirne-Smith, Ittenbach, & Patton, 1998). The Twenty-Fourth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) reported that poor students were 1. 5 times more likely to be referred to special education; it noted significantly lower cognitive development and lower achievement among this population than among non-poor students. The report speculated on causes from lead poisoning to parent education level, but some advocates have argued that poor students, and particularly poor minority students, have been over-identified in the mild mental retardation category and misplaced in special education classrooms (Losen, 2002). The term â€Å"mental retardation† is widely used and coded into federal law, but the term remains the subject of considerable controversy. Some advocacy groups and professional associations argue that the negative stigma of the term mental retardation could be avoided by using less loaded language. The ARC of the United States, one of the country's largest advocacy organizations for people with mental retardation, eschews the term mental retardation in its mission statement (The ARC, 2004) in favor of â€Å"cognitive, intellectual, and developmental disabilities. In 2004, Special Olympics updated its terminology from â€Å"mental retardation† to â€Å"intellectual disabilities† (see the Language Guide under â€Å"About Us,† then â€Å"Information about Intellectual Disabilities† at www. specialolympics. org). In this paper we use the term â€Å"mental retardation† as a legal term defined by IDEA, while cognizant of this significant shift in terminology. Characteristics of students with mental retardation vary widely. Students with mental retardation may have difficulty with expressive language, poor short-term memory, low level meta-cognition skills, and poor use of logic and organization. Some students who are labeled as mentally retarded also have motor difficulties that can affect their handwriting or their ability to hold reading material steadily (Rizopoulos & Wolpert, 2004). Students with mental retardation, like all students, demonstrate wide variation in strengths, weaknesses, interests, and motivation, all of which should be reflected in each student's Individualized Education Program (IEP). Traditionally, special educators have de-emphasized literacy, particularly for students with moderate to severe mental retardation, in favor of functional, social, or motor skills (Kliewer & Biklen, 2001). Many people with mental retardation read below their projected capabilities, and both general and special education teacher education textbooks are marked by a scarcity of information on academic characteristics, assessment procedures, and instruction in literacy for students with mental retardation. Only recently have educators begun to recognize the value of reading and writing skills for all students, including those with severe mental retardation (Katims, 2000). Since school systems have begun to include students with moderate to severe mental retardation in assessments (IDEA, 1997, 2004) and accountability (NCLB, 2001), and thus also included in more academic instruction, these students have been achieving at much higher and more complex levels than researchers, practitioners, and even advocates expected (see Moore-Lamminen & Olsen, 2005). This powerful evidence has forced educational professionals to revisit long-held assumptions about the benefits of academic instruction for all children, and is generating provocative reading research on new, rigorous approaches to reading instruction for students with mental retardation (e. g. , Reading, Writing, Math, and Science for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities, Diane Browder, PI). Instruction for Students with Mental Retardation The focus in education for students with mental retardation has shifted from an emphasis on providing services related to placement, such as disability specific classrooms or special schools, to providing individualized supports to help every student access the general curriculum in an inclusive classroom setting. American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), a lead advocate of the â€Å"supports model,† emphasized in its 2002 definition of mental retardation that the effects of mental retardation can be ameliorated with personalized supports. This shift in thinking correlates with an increased emphasis on inclusionary and mainstream education for students with mental retardation, giving these students access to a challenging and interesting general curriculum and an integrated social environment. IDEA 1997 emphasized that students with disabilities must have access to the same challenging content taught to all students; this was reiterated and strengthened in IDEA 2004. Many special education researchers and advocates argue that holding students with disabilities, including mental retardation, to the same high expectations as all students will improve learning and educational outcomes for these students (McGrew & Evans, 2004). Approaches to teaching reading to students with mental retardation fall broadly into two categories. One broad category is the traditional or direct instruction approach, which teaches reading as distinct subsets of skills such as phonics and sight word recognition (Rizopoulos & Wolpert, 2004). The traditional approach is based on a behaviorist model, emphasizing drill and practice of a linear set of literacy skills. The second approach is a progressive, holistic approach that teaches comprehension and critical thinking along with phonological awareness, decoding, vocabulary, and reading for enjoyment (Katims, 2000). Each of these approaches has had support with some students with mental retardation and for various purposes (Browder & Xin, 1998; Cunningham, 1999; Driscoll & Kemp, 1996; Hendricks, Katims, & Carr, 1999; Joseph & McCachran, 2003; Katims, 2000; Moni & Jobling, 2000). Assistive technology and technology increasingly have become important supports for reading-related instruction and reading for students with mental retardation. For example, Erickson and Koppenhaver (1995) found that computer and light technology can give students with severe mental retardation the supports they need to build communication skills. Continued interest in the literacy outcomes of students with mental retardation and supporting research has blossomed in the past few years, and is most likely to be a productive area for the reading futures of students with mental retardation (Beukelman & Mirenda, 2005; Erickson, Clendon, Abraham, Roy, & Van de Karr, 2005; Sturm, Erickson, & Yoder, 2003). In their review of literacy approaches for adolescents with developmental delays, Rizopoulos and Wolpert (2004) suggested that both traditional and progressive approaches to literacy instruction can be appropriate for certain students. Recent research by Diane Browder looks closely at the assumption that students with the most severe mental retardation benefit only from functional approaches to literacy. Browder and Algozzine argue more research is needed to understand how students with severe mental retardation might benefit from explicit instruction in decoding and comprehension skills (Browder & Algozzine, draft). Assessment of Students with Mental Retardation Most students with mental retardation participate in the same large-scale reading assessments as all students. While not all students with mental retardation will require supports or accommodations on large-scale assessments, these students have access to the same accommodations that other students with disabilities receive. Whether a student will require extra time on tests, large print, read-aloud directions, alternative setting accommodations, or other supports to demonstrate maximum proficiency depends on the individual strengths and weaknesses of each student. The most common accommodations used for students with mental retardation include breaking tasks into smaller steps, providing read aloud directions or questions, and visual cues (such as arrows, stickers, or stop signs, highlighting of key words or verbs, or supplementing text with pictures). Other accommodations range from encouraging students to stay on task and oral directions accompanied by written directions, to noise buffers and adaptive furniture (Clapper, Morse, Lazarus, Thompson, & Thurlow, 2005). Some students with the most significant cognitive disabilities who are unable to participate in large-scale assessments even with accommodations are eligible to take alternate assessments. All alternate assessments are aligned to grade-level academic content standards, but they can be based on either grade level achievement standards or alternate achievement standards. The students who may participate in alternate assessments on grade level achievement standards may need accommodations not available on general assessments or need different formats or contexts to demonstrate grade-level proficiency (National Center on Educational Outcomes Web site, 2005). Students with the most significant cognitive disabilities can demonstrate proficiency on an alternate achievement standard. Alternate assessments should promote access to the general curriculum and reflect professional judgment of the highest achievement standard possible for each individual student. Summary The intent of this brief paper is to highlight issues surrounding reading and students with mental retardation. While not a comprehensive review, it is intended to give enough of a sense of the characteristics of the students, general instructional approaches used with them, and assessment approaches and issues to generate discussion about the possible ways in which more accessible assessments can be designed for those students who are proficient readers given their diagnosis of mental retardation. This paper is part of the background for research on accessible reading assessments conducted by the Partnership for Accessible Reading Assessments, and for discussions among collaborators on the National Accessible Reading Assessment Projects (NARAP).